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NATURE |
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New Zealand is still perceived as a green and pleasant land, as it
has been by many thousands of immigrants, first from the Polynesian
Islands, then Europe and now the Pacific rim of Asia. Although
relatively small it boasts an enormous diversity: unspoiled sub-tropical
forest, rich volcanic basins (and volcanoes), mudpools and geysers,
intricate and rugged coastline with golden sand beaches and spectacular
alpine regions. This diverse landscape supports an extraordinary variety
of animals and plant life, with almost ninety percent of the flora not
found anywhere else in the world. Thanks to the efforts of a vociferous
minority, since the late 1800s, examples of the many habitats, plants
and wildlife are still easily accessible, protected within national
parks and scenic reserves.
Beginnings
Land has existed in the vicinity of New Zealand for most of the last 500
million years: the earliest rocks found in the country are thought to
have originated in the continental forelands of Australia and
Antarctica, part of Gondwanaland, the massive continent to which New
Zealand belonged. The oceanic islands were created by continental drift,
the movement of the large plates that form the earth's crust, which
created a distinct island arc and oceanic trench about 100 million years
ago.
Roughly 26 million years ago, the land that makes up New Zealand rose
further from the sea, and the landscape you see today was formed by
volcanic activity and continuous movement along fault lines,
particularly the Alpine Fault of the South Island. The essential geology
of the two islands is different: the North Island is at the edge of two
tectonic plates, where one has slid beneath the other, resulting in
prolific volcanic activity; the South Island is the site of two tectonic
plates crashing into each other, causing rapid mountain building. Today
New Zealand experiences about four hundred earthquakes every year,
roughly a quarter of them strong enough to be noticeable. The volcanoes
on the North Island, some still impressively active (the last eruption
was Ruapehu in 1996), extend from the Bay of Plenty to the dormant
volcanic cone of Mount Taranaki on the West Coast.
Isolated from man and other mammals, New Zealand would have been the
perfect place to study the evolution of species. It's hardly surprising
that so many botanists considered the oceanic islands as laboratories
where they could perfect their theories. The country was separated from
all other land masses for so long that, uniquely, birds occupied the
position in the food chain usually held by mammals. Darwinism would
suggest that with no predators the birds became fearless, learning to
walk amid the dense bush, gradually becoming flightless and growing in
size. If allowed to develop unhindered, perhaps they would have evolved
into a serious competitor to mammals, but their perfect adaptation to
the environment brought their downfall with the arrival of man and other
aggressive, fast-moving mammals.
No ground-based mammals colonized the islands until Maori gave rats and
dogs passage in their canoes, possibly in about 1000 AD although some
theories suggest earlier. Maori were also responsible for hunting the
large, flightless moa into extinction, and clearing great swathes of
bush with fire. At that time both islands were almost entirely covered
in dense forest composed of over a hundred species of tree, the floor
carpeted by moss and lichen with a thick tangled undergrowth of tree
fern, some species over ten metres high. Amongst the trees and ferns
were twining creepers, nikau palms and palm lilies, all intermingled and
forming an impenetrable bush alive with native birds.
The changes to the land brought by Maori pale in comparison with the
incursions of the Europeans. Right from Cook's first exploratory visits,
when he brought with him the pig, the sheep and the potato, Europeans
tampered with the delicate balance of New Zealand in an attempt to turn
it into a "New England". In the early 1800s whalers and sealers bloodied
the coastal waters, while logging campaigns cleared vast swathes of
native trees, leaving land suitable only for grazing cattle; later, gold
prospectors diverted streams and carved chunks out of hillsides. Perhaps
the greatest environmental changes were made by immigrant farmers, who
had introduced over fifty species of mammal to New Zealand by the start
of World War I, including rabbits, weasels, mountain goats, cats, dogs,
frogs, mice, possums and wallabies. These animals decimated native
animal and plant life in the increasing competition for food. Imported
plants, such as blackberry, pine and gorse, had just as much effect:
allowed to grow wild, they choked and destroyed hundreds of unique
plants vital to the ecology of the islands.
The coast, islands and sea
New Zealand's indented coastline, battered by the Tasman Sea and the
Pacific Ocean, is a meeting place of warm and cold currents, which makes
for an environment suited to an enormous variety of fish. Tropical fish
species such as barracuda, marlin, sharks and tuna are attracted by the
warm currents, locally populated by hoki, kahawai, snapper, orange
roughy and trevally . The cold Antarctic currents bring blue and red cod
, blue and red moki , and fish that can tolerate a considerable range of
water temperatures, such as the tarakihi, grouper and bass , all avidly
sought after by an army of weekend anglers.
Many people visit New Zealand with the express intention of seeing the
sea mammals that grace the waters, and most leave satisfied. The rare
humpback whale is an occasional visitor to the shores of Kaikoura and
Cook Strait, while sperm whales are common year round in the deep sea
trench near Kaikoura. Orca are seen regularly wherever there are
dolphins, seals and other whales, namely Banks Peninsula, Kaikoura,
Dunedin, Stewart Island, the Marlborough Sounds, Cook Strait, the Bay of
Plenty and the Bay of Islands. One frequent visitor is the pilot whale :
up to 200 pass by Farewell Spit each year and some strand themselves
there. Despite the efforts of the locals to refloat them, a few die
nearly every year. Pilot whales are also seen in Cook Strait and the Bay
of Plenty.
Common dolphins congregate all year round in the Bay of Plenty, Bay of
Islands and around the Coromandel Peninsula. Of the three other species
seen in New Zealand, bottlenose dolphins hang around Kaikoura and
Whakatane most of the year, while dusky dolphins, the most playful, can
be spotted near the shore of the Marlborough Sounds and Kaikoura, from
October to May. At any time of year you might get small schools of tiny
Hector's dolphins accompanying your boat around Banks Peninsula, the
Catlins and as far down as Invercargill.
Until recently there were few opportunities to see the Hooker's (now
called New Zealand) sea lion except on remote Antarctic islands; now
these rare animals with their round noses and deep, wet eyes are
appearing once more around the Catlins and Otago Peninsula. If you do
see them, though, be careful: they bite and can move fast over short
distances, so don't go any closer than ten metres and avoid getting
between them and the sea. The larger New Zealand fur seal is in much
greater abundance around the coast, easily spotted basking on rocks or
sand and gracefully turning in the waters, their broader, pointy heads
popping above the surface. You're most likely to come across them in the
Sugar Loaf Marine Reserve, the Northland Coast, the Bay of Plenty, near
Kaikoura, the Otago Peninsula and in Abel Tasman National Park. Both
seals and sea lions can become aggressive during the breeding season (Dec-Feb),
so remember to keep your distance (at least 30m) at these times. If you
are lucky enough to visit the Nuggets in the Catlins, you may be
rewarded by a sighting of one of the few elephant seals still breeding
on the New Zealand coast; more extensive colonies exist on the offshore
islands.
Also drawn by the fish-rich waters of the coast are a number of visiting
and native seabirds, the most famous being the graceful and solitary
royal albatross , found on the Otago Peninsula, and, just offshore, the
smaller wandering albatross . A far more common sight are little blue
penguins , which you're almost guaranteed to see on any boat journey,
all year round. The large yellow-eyed penguin is confined to parts of
the east coast of the South Island, from Christchurch to the Catlins,
while the Fiordland crested penguin with its thick yellow eyebrows is
rarely seen outside Fiordland and Stewart Island. Other common sea birds
include gannets , their yellow heads and white bodies unmistakable as
they dive from great heights into shoals of fish; and cormorants and
shags (mostly grey or black), usually congregating on cliffs and rocky
shores. On and around islands you're also likely to see the sooty
shearwater , titi (also known as "mutton birds"), while the black
oystercatchers and the black and white variable oystercatchers , both
with orange cigar beaks and stooping gait, can be spotted searching in
pairs for food on the foreshore almost everywhere.
The highlands
Thanks to the impact of introduced species on the environment , to
really appreciate the picture that greeted first the Maori and then the
European immigrants, you need to visit one of New Zealand's many scenic
reserves or national parks. In the Tongariro, Whanganui, Taranaki,
Nelson Lakes, Arthur's Pass and Mount Cook national parks, all highland
forest areas, tawhairauriki (mountain beech) grow close to the top of
the tree line, straight trees up to 20m high, with sharp dark leaves and
little red flowers. Also at high altitudes, often in mixed stands, are
tawhai (silver beech), whose grey trunks grow up to 30m. Slightly lower
altitudes are favoured by the other members of the beech family, the
black and red varieties. Often mixed in with them is the thin, straggly
manuka (tea tree), which grows in both Alpine regions and on seashores.
New Zealand has five hundred species of flowering alpine plant that grow
nowhere else in the world. Most famous are the large white mountain
daisies, Mount Cook lilies - the largest in the world, and a white-flowered
yellow-centred member of the buttercup family. Another interesting
plant found on the high ground of the South Island is the vegetable
sheep , a white hairy plant that grows low along the ground and, at a
great distance, could just about be mistaken for grazing sheep.
One of the oldest of New Zealand's unique creatures inhabits caves and
rock crevices above the snow line: the weta (also known as the "Mount
Cook flea"), an insect that has changed little in 190 million years.
There are several species, the most impressive being the giant weta,
which is the heaviest insect in the world, weighing up to 71g and about
the size of a small thrush. Weta aren't dangerous, despite their vicious-looking
mandibles (they're said to have been the model for Ridley Scott's Alien
). Though weta also inhabit the bush, they're hard to spot and you're
most likely to see them in museums and zoos.
The red-beaked, green takahe , a close relative of the more common
pukeko, is one of the most famous of the country's flightless birds.
Thought to have been extinct until 1948, its survival is currently in
the hands of the DOC, who have set up protection programmes in a few
highland regions . Another highland forest bird to watch out for is the
New Zealand falcon or bush hawk, seen sometimes in the north of the
North Island and more often in the high country of the Southern Alps,
Fiordland and the forests of Westland. It has a heavily flecked breast,
chestnut thighs and a pointed head.
New Zealand boasts the only flightless parrot in the world, the green
and blue, nocturnal kakapo . Once widespread, it's now very rare and
predominantly seen in the forests and highlands of Fiordland. You're
much more likely to come across the kea , regarded as the only truly
alpine parrot in the world , though its range encompasses both lowland
and highland forests. Known for killing sheep (an alleged recently
acquired habit), making off with people's possessions and then ripping
them apart or eating them, the kea is green with distinctive orange
patches on the underside of its wings and a crimson abdomen. Finally, of
the smaller birds in the sub-alpine areas, the yellow and green rock
wren and the rifleman , a tiny green and blue bird with spiralling
flight, are commonly seen in the high forests of the South Island.
The lowlands
These days the majority of New Zealand is covered by grazing land,
grasslands and plains that are dominated by tall and low tussock .
Fortunately, there remains a great variety of native trees in the mid to
lowland forests of Northland, the Coromandel Peninsula, along the west
coasts of both islands, around Wellington and on Stewart Island. There
are also sixty different endemic native flowering plants in lowland
areas, whose blooms mostly range from white to yellow, their relative
lack of colour due to the fact that there were no bees to cross-pollinate
until the Europeans arrived. Much colour in gardens, parks and mixed
forest comes from introduced species such as roses, azaleas and
rhododendrons.
New Zealand's best-known tree, the kauri , is found in mixed lowland
forest, particularly in Northland . With a lifespan of two to four
thousand years, this magnificent king of the forest rises to thirty
metres, two-thirds of its height being straight, branchless trunk. Maori
canoe-builders treat the kauri with great reverence and have always
enacted solemn ceremonies before hacking them down for transformation
into giant canoes; European shipbuilders coveted the trees for making
ocean-going traders and warships. The tree is also the source of the
kauri gum, dug from ancient forests and exported in the late nineteenth
and early twentieth century.
Open spaces along forest edges and river banks are often alive with tui
sucking nectar from golden clusters of kowhai , the national flower,
which hangs from an eponymous tree whose wood was once fashioned into
Maori canoe paddles and adze handles. Another useful tree, the maire
stands up to 20m tall and is covered with whitish bark, thick narrow
leaves and tiny pink flowers that look like open umbrellas. Its wood is
heavy and close-grained, ideal for war clubs, and when burned it gives
off very little smoke. Now quite rare, the 30m matai was also once used
by Maori as a source of timber for canoe prows and by settlers for
buildings; it can be identified by a thick, dark grey bark that flakes
off.
North of Banks Peninsula and on the North Island grows New Zealand's
only native palm , the nikau , whose slender branchless stem bears shiny
leaves of up to 30cm, long pink spiky flowers and red fruit. Early
European settlers used to use the berries as pellets in the absence of
ammunition.
The pohutukawa is an irregularly branched 20m tree found as far south as
Otago, seen in forests around the coast and at lake edges. Bearing
bright crimson blossoms from November to January, it's often known as "New
Zealand's Christmas tree". Another well-known red-blooming tree is the
gnarled rata , found in quantity in South Island forests and in ones and
twos around the North Island. It starts out life as a climber, its
windblown seeds establishing it high in other trees, and then its aerial
roots gradually take over the host, eventually draining it of life.
One native pine which was heavily milled for its timber and yet is still
widespread throughout mixed forests is the majestic rimu (red pine),
growing to 50-60m with small green flowers, red cones and tiny green or
black fruit. Charcoal from rimu used to be mixed with oil and rubbed
into tattoo incisions.
A common shade-loving tree found in stands in the forests is the tawa ,
with a long, thin blackish trunk and spear-shaped leaves. The tree
produces black berries which, although initially unpleasant, develop a
better flavour some time after picking. Also common throughout the
country's mixed forests is the totara , which usually lives for a
thousand years and was often used by Maori to make war canoes. The
tree's thick brown bark was also used: it peels in long lengths,
suitable for weaving baskets.
The ti kouka grows beneath the forest canopy, usually in moist areas and
often along the edges of farmland. These 10- to 20m trees with long,
thin grey trunks and spear-shaped leaves are also known as "cabbage
trees", a reference to the shoots that were eaten by Captain Cook and
his men. The tree also produces hundreds of white flowers in spectacular
clusters. Below, on the forest floor grow an enormous variety of ferns ,
many of them hard to tell apart. The most famous, adopted as a national
emblem, is the ponga (silver fern). Reaching about 10m in height, it has
long fronds that are dull green on top and silvery white underneath.
Kiwi
The kiwi is a member of the ratite family, which includes the ostrich,
emu, rhea, cassowary and the long-extinct moa, and if action is not
taken soon the kiwi will join the moa on the list of terminated animals.
A stout muscular bird, shy and nocturnal, which inhabits the forest
floor. Sadly there are probably fewer than 15,000 wild birds left in the
country and currently the numbers are going down, not up. It sleeps for
up to twenty hours a day, which probably explains why it normally lives
to the age of 20 or 25. The females are bigger than the males and lay
huge eggs, equivalent to around a fifth of their body weight. After
eighty days, the eggs hatch and the chicks live off the rich yolk;
neither parent feeds them and they emerge from the nest totally
independent.
The kiwi is one of the few birds in the world with a well-developed
sense of smell . At night you might hear them snuffling around in the
dark, using the nostrils at the end of their bill to detect earthworms,
beetles, cicada larvae, spiders and also koura (freshwater crayfish),
berries and the occasional frog. Armed also with sensitive bristles at
the base of its bill and a highly developed sense of hearing, the kiwi
can detect other birds and animals on its territory and will readily
attack them with its claws.
The Brown Kiwi ( Apteryx australis ), the largest species, is famous for
its big nose, bad temper and for being a tough fighter against intruders
on their territory. They live in a wide range of vegetation, including
exotic forests and rough farmland on the North Island. In 1993 the
Tokoeka or Okarito Brown , which is almost identical, was identified as
a separate species. Inhabiting the South Island and Stewart Island, the
southern tokoeka are the most communal of the kiwi family and can be
seen poking about along the tideline within a few metres of one another.
A subspecies, the Haast Tokoeka , are found only in Fiordland.
The Little Spotted Kiwi or Kiwi Pukupuku ( Apteryx owenii ) is the
smallest and rarest of the kiwi, found on only six offshore islands,
including Kapiti Island. Predators and land clearance are largely
responsible for the low numbers, although a programme to remove
predators from the offshore islands has seen their fortunes revive. This
species is mellow and docile by nature and pairs often share daytime
shelter, going their separate ways to feed, grunting to one another as
they pass. Little Spotted Kiwi rarely probe for food, instead finding
prey on the ground or in the forest litter. In spring, during courtship,
birds stand with bills crossed and pointing downwards while shuffling
around each other, grunting, for up to twenty minutes. The best time to
hear them is just after dark from high points around an island. Listen
carefully for the male's shrill whistle and the female's gentle purr.
Great Spotted Kiwi or Roa ( Apteryx haastii ) inhabit regions of
snow-covered peaks, herb fields, with rocky outcrops, valleys of red
tussock and mountains clothed in beech forest and alpine scrub. Their
severe living conditions account for the many legends that surround
them. Early European explorers told stories of remote kiwi the size of a
turkey with powerful spurs on its legs, whose call was louder than any
other of the species. Their harsh home has also helped preserve these
big handsome birds, keeping them safe from the pigs, dogs and stoats
that have killed so many other kiwi species.
Should you want to help save these symbols of New Zealand you can make a
donation of $2 direct to the Department of Conservation, Royal Forests
and Birds Protection Society and Bank of New Zealand programme.
Rivers, lakes and wetlands
New Zealand is riddled with rivers , most of them short and flowing
rapidly down to the sea. There are some slower, meandering rivers on the
east coast of the South Island, however, which create for a unique
environment. The braided rivers in Canterbury and the Waitaki/Mackenzie
Basin have distinctive wide shingle beds and multiple channels,
providing a breeding ground for many birds, insects, fish and plants.
Numerous lakes provide rich habitats for fish and birds; many of New
Zealand's wetlands , on the other hand, have been drained for
agriculture and property development, although some areas are preserved
as national parks and scenic reserves. It's in low wetland areas that
you're likely to come across the tallest of the native trees, the
kahikatea (white pine), which reaches over 60m. There's a particularly
fine stand in the central western North Island close to Te Awamutu.
One bird you're bound to see in the vicinity of a lake is the takahe's
closest relative, the pukeko , a bird which is still in the process of
losing the power of flight. The pukeko is mostly dark and mid-blue with
large feet and an orange beak, and lets out a high-pitched screech if
disturbed.
New Zealand is renowned for its great fresh-water fishing, with massive
brown and rainbow trout and salmon swarming through the fast-flowing
streams. All introduced species, these fish have adapted so well to
their conditions that they grow much larger here than elsewhere in the
world; as a result, many native species have been driven out. Another
delicacy commonly found in New Zealand's waters are native eels , much
loved by Maori who built complicated eel traps along many rivers.
Keeping the fishermen company along the river banks of the Mackenzie
country and Canterbury are black stilt or kaki , one of the world's
rarest wading birds. A thin black bird with round eyes and long red
legs, the stilt is incredibly shy - if you do see one in the wild, keep
well away. Usually found in swamps and beside riverbeds, the best place
to see them is in the specially created reserve near Twizel . A slightly
more adaptable member of the family is the common pied stilt , a black
and white bird that has been more successful in resisting the attentions
of introduced mammals, particularly feral cats.
Another inhabitant of the Canterbury braided riverbank is the wrybill .
This small white and grey bird uses its unique bent bill to turn over
stones or pull out crustaceans from mud. In winter the species
migrates to Auckland and the mudflats of Kaipara, Manukau and the Firth
of Thames. The wrybill's close cousin, the banded dotterel , favours the
sides of rivers, lakes, open land with sparse vegetation and coastal
lagoons and beaches. It is a small brown and white bird with a dark or
black band around its neck and breeds only in New Zealand, though it
does briefly migrate to Australia.
The blue duck is one of four endemic species with no close relatives
anywhere in the world. Its Maori name, Whio , is a near perfect
representation of the male bird's call. You can spot it by its blue-grey
plumage, with chestnut on both breast and flanks; it also has an unusual
bill with a black flexible membrane along each side, and beady yellow
eyes. Mountainous areas are where it makes its home, preferring the
swift mountain streams and approaching the coast only where the
mountains are close to the sea. Unfortunately this is now an endangered
species, preyed upon by mammals and forced to compete for food with the
salmon and trout in the rivers. |
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